Control of Trade and Naval Power Understanding the threat posed by Portuguese and Spanish expansion, the Ottomans sought to consolidate their control over Red Sea ports and the Eastern Mediterranean to maintain dominance over trade. Sultan Selim I (r. 1512–1520) notably expanded Ottoman ter

The Age of Discovery, spanning roughly from the late 15th century through the 17th century, is often associated with the European maritime powers such as Spain, Portugal, England, and the Netherlands. These nations launched voyages that reshaped global trade, politics, and cultural exchange. However

Contrary to the popular image of peasants living in misery, medieval villages and towns were vibrant communities with rich social lives. Festivals, markets, fairs, and religious celebrations created opportunities for socializing and commerce. Artisans and merchants contributed to a growing middle cl

The Middle Ages were not a time of isolation but a period of vibrant trade networks and cultural exchange. The Silk Road connected Europe with Asia, allowing the flow of goods, ideas, religions, and technologies. The Crusades, often remembered solely as religious wars, also facilitated contact betwe

While medieval Europe was largely a feudal society dominated by monarchs and nobility, it was also a time when foundational ideas about law, governance, and individual rights took root—ideas that would influence modern democratic principles. The Magna Carta, signed in 1215 by King John of Engl